Baptism
In Christianity, baptism (a word derived from Greek baptizo: "immersing", "performing ablutions")[1][2] is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which one is admitted as a full member of the Christian Church and, in the view of some, as a member of the particular Church in which the baptism is administered.
Some Christians, particularly Quakers and the Salvation Army, do not see baptism as necessary. Among those that do, differences can be found in the manner of baptizing and in the understanding of the significance of the rite. Most baptize "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit", but some baptize in Jesus' name only. Most baptize infants, others do not. Some insist on submersion or at least partial immersion of the person who is baptized, others consider that any form of washing by water is sufficient.
The most usual form of baptism among Early Christians was for the candidate to stand in water and water to be poured over the upper body.[3] Other common forms of baptism now in use include pouring water three times on the forehead or complete submersion in water.
Baptism has traditionally been seen as necessary for salvation. Martyrdom was identified early in church history as baptism by blood, enabling martyrs who had not been baptized by water to be saved. Later, the Catholic church identified a baptism of desire, by which those preparing for baptism who die before actually receiving the sacrament are considered saved.[4]
The English word "baptism" has been used in reference to any ceremony, trial, or experience by which one is initiated, purified, or given a name.[5] See Other initiation ceremonies below.
As Christians of different traditions dispute whether total immersion (submersion) is necessary for baptism, the precise meaning of the Greek word has become important for exegesis.
The Greek-English Lexicon of Liddell and Scott gives the primary meaning of the word βαπτίζω (transliterated as "baptizô"), from which the English word baptism is derived, as dip, plunge, but indicates, giving Luke 11:38 as an example, that another meaning is perform ablutions.[1]
Liddell and Scott is not the only authority to state that the Greek word βαπτίζω does not mean exclusively, dip, plunge or immerse. Scholars of various denominations[6] point to two passages in the New Testament as indicating that the word, when applied to a person, did not always indicate submersion. It is Jewish custom that, before any meal of which bread forms a part, the hands must be solemnly washed, and this washing must be done by pouring water on the hands, not by dipping them in water.[7] Luke 11:38 uses the verb βαπτίζω of such a ritual washing: a Pharisee, at whose house Jesus ate, "was astonished to see that he did not first wash (βαπτίζω – literally, "be baptized" or "baptize himself") before dinner." This is the passage that Liddell and Scott cites as an instance of the use of βαπτίζω to mean perform ablutions.[8] The other New Testament passage pointed to is Mark 7:3–4a: "The Pharisees ... do not eat unless they wash (νίπτω, the ordinary word for washing) their hands thoroughly, observing the tradition of the elders; and when they come from the market place, they do not eat unless they wash themselves (literally, "baptize themselves" - βαπτίζω)".
Baptism has been part of Christianity from the start, as shown by the many mentions in the Acts of the Apostles and the Pauline epistles. Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism. How explicit Jesus' intentions were and whether he envisioned a continuing, organized Church is a matter of dispute among scholars.[9]
Although the term "baptism" is not used to describe the Jewish rituals, the purification rites (or mikvah - ritual immersion) in Jewish laws and tradition have some similarity to baptism, and the two have been linked[10] although their relationship is disputed. In the Jewish Bible and other Jewish texts, immersion in water for ritual purification was established for restoration to a condition of "ritual purity" in specific circumstances. For example, Jews who (according to the Law of Moses) became ritually defiled by contact with a corpse had to use the mikvah before being allowed to participate in the Holy Temple. Immersion is required for converts to Judaism as part of their conversion. Immersion in the mikvah represents a change in status in regards to purification, restoration, and qualification for full religious participation in the life of the community, ensuring that the cleansed person will not impose uncleanness on property or its owners (see Numbers Chapter 19, and Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Chagigah, page 12). This change of status by the mikvah could be obtained repeatedly, while Christian baptism is, like circumcision, unique and not repeatable.[11]
At the start of his ministry, Jesus was baptized in the Jordan River by John the Baptist. John the Baptist preached repentance in the face of God's imminent judgement and had a very large following during the time of Jesus, with many people seeking John's baptismal purification in the River Jordan. Second-century evidence relates the early claims of the Mandeans to be a continuation of John's religious following, who maintain baptism as a central rite to the modern day. Many of the earliest followers of Jesus were other people who, like him, were baptized in the Jordan by John the Baptist.[12]
Scholars broadly agree that the baptism of Jesus is one of the most authentic, or historically likely, events in the life of the historical Jesus. Jesus and his earliest disciples accepted the validity of John's baptism. Early Christianity practised a baptism of repentance which conferred the remission of sins. Candidates for baptism were baptised in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. This was at times referred to as baptism in the name of Jesus Christ so as to distinguish it from the baptism of St John the Baptist. Christian baptism has its origin in the baptism of Jesus, in both a direct and historical sense.[13]
The event raised the issue of Jesus' potential submission to John the Baptist and seemed contradictory to the Christian belief in the sinless nature of Jesus Christ. Attempts to address this theological difficulty are apparent in the earliest Christian writings, including the Gospels. For Mark, the baptism by John is the setting for the theophany, the revelation of Jesus' divine identity as the Son of God (Mark 1:7-11). Matthew shows John objecting to baptizing Jesus, an obvious superior, and only agreeing when overruled by Jesus (Matt 3:14-15) and omits Mark's reference to baptism for the forgiveness of sins. Luke emphasizes the subservience of John to Jesus while both are still in the womb (Luke 1:32-45) and omits the role of John in the baptism of Jesus (Luke 3:18-21). The non-synoptic Gospel of John omits the episode.[14]
Questions over the baptism of Jesus were a theological conundrum that occupied Christian theologians and apologists throughout the early centuries of Christianity. Early explanations that have remained popular throughout history include Ignatius of Antioch's assertion that Jesus was baptized to purify the waters of baptism and Justin Martyr's explanation that Jesus was baptized in his role as the ideal example for everyone.[15]
A passage of the Gospel of John (John 3:22-30) explicitly states that Jesus did baptize. According to the The Cambridge Companion to Jesus, this passage confirms the central place of baptism in Jesus' message. The Cambridge Companion further states that the initiatory baptism of Jesus and the requirement to "repent and accept baptism" in earliest Christianity were further evidence of baptism's central place in the "good news".[16]
A passage in the next chapter of the Gospel of John (John 4:1-4) mentions both that Jesus baptized and did not baptize.[17] Many scholars[18] consider the statement that Jesus did not baptize, but rather his disciples baptized (John 4:2), to be a later editorial insertion.[17] Theologian Thomas L. Brodie asserts that the editorial-insertion explanation is unlikely, postulating that there is no need to attribute contradiction and editorial insertion; rather, the explanation presents a theme of Jesus' taking on a more distant leadership role, passing hands-on responsibility to the disciples.[17]
Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz assert that John 4:2 provides context and clarification for the preceding statements in the Gospel of John indicating Jesus baptized. That is, Jesus did not baptize directly, but rather his disciples baptized in his name. Theissen and Merz assert that ritual purification, such as baptism, was highly unlikely to be practiced by the anti-ritualistic Jesus, who emphasized an "ethical repentance" over ritual adherence.[19] The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions also states that Jesus did not baptize as part of his ministry.[3]
The account of Jesus' baptism ministry in John has historical difficulties.[20] For instance, it reports Jesus coming to Judea even though he's already in Jerusalem and Judea.[20] The passage of Jesus coming to Judea to lead a mission of baptism, according to the Jesus Seminar, probably preserves no historical information.[20] The Jesus Seminar rated this account as black, containing no historically accurate information,[20] and that John likely had a larger presence in the public mind than Jesus.[21]
In the Gospel of Matthew, the resurrected Jesus appears to the apostles and commissions them to make disciples, baptize, and teach.[22] This commission reflects the program adopted by the infant Christian movement.[22]
For Paul, baptism effects and represents the believer's union with Christ, Christ's death, and His resurrection; cleanses one of sin; incorporates one into the Body of Christ, and makes one "drink of the Spirit" (1 Cor 12:13).[9] In Acts, its prerequisites are faith and repentance.[9] Acts associates baptism with receiving the Spirit, but the exact connection is not always the same.[9]
Acts of the Apostles states that about 3,000 people in Jerusalem were baptized in one day on Pentecost.[23] It further relates baptisms of men and women in Samaria,[24] of an Ethiopian eunuch,[25] of Saul of Tarsus[26] of the household of Cornelius,[27] of Lydia's household,[28] of the Philippi jailer's household,[29] of many Corinthians,[30] and of certain Corinthians baptized by Paul personally.[31]
Additionally John the Baptizer, in describing the baptism which Jesus will provide, says that it will have a power or significance surpassing John's baptism, in that Christian baptism will involve the Holy Spirit; thus the real emphasis is not on who physically administered the baptism but on the absence or presence of supernatural participation in the baptism.[32] Years later, in Ephesus, twelve individuals who had undergone John's baptism, and who consequently had yet to receive the Holy Spirit, were directed by Paul to be rebaptized, whereupon they received the Holy Spirit.[33]
The New Testament nowhere specifically authorizes or forbids infant baptism. It considers the children of Christians to be Christians (Colossians 3:20), with no suggestion that they required baptism at a later age; and the absence of positive evidence of infant baptism in the New Testament has sometimes been attributed to its concentration on the spread of Christianity among non-Christians, not on the Church's growth from those brought up by Christian parents.[34]
Along with fasting, the practice of baptism may have entered Christian practice under the influence of former followers of John's.[21]
Baptism was typically by immersion, pouring water on someone standing in a stream or pool.[3]
The Didache or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, an anonymous book of 16 short chapters, is probably the earliest known written instructions, outside of the Bible, for administering baptism. The first edition was written c 60-80 AD.[35] The second, with insertions and additions, was written c 100-150 AD.[35] It indicates a preference for baptizing in "living" (i.e. running, as in a river or stream) water at its natural temperature, but considers that, if necessary, it is enough to pour water of any kind on the head: "Concerning baptism, baptize this way: Having first said all these things, baptize into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living water. But if you have no living water, baptize into other water; and if you cannot do so in cold water, do so in warm. But if you have neither, pour out water three times upon the head into the name of Father and Son and Holy Spirit."[36]
In imitation of the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan, early Christians preferred rivers for performing baptisms, and this was also suitable for the baptism of large crowds.[37] Since rivers were not available everywhere, some important writers of the second and third centuries (Justin, Clement, Victor I, and Tertullian) remarked that seas, lakes, ponds and springs are equally proper baptismal sites.[37]
In Matthew (c 80-85),[38] Christians are to baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.[22] Baptism has been in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit since at least the end of the 1st century.[9] In Acts (c 90),[38] Christians baptize in the name of Jesus (Acts 19:5)though whether that formula was ever used has been questioned as the phrase was used to distinguish it from the baptism of St John the Baptist.[9]
The practice of infant baptism is nowhere clearly stated or rejected in the 1st century.
Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism were variable.[3] In the most usual form of early Christian baptism, the candidate stood in water and water was poured over the upper body.[3]The theology of baptism attained precision in the 3rd and 4th centuries.[3]
The tradition of infant baptism is at least as old as the 3rd century.[39] Evidence for infant baptism, which would remain universal until the Protestant Reformation, has been seen in second-century writers such as Justin Martyr and Irenaeus and is more explicit in the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170 – c. 236).[40]
As baptism forgave sins, the issue of sins committed after baptism arose. Hard-liners periodically insisted that apostasy, even under threat of death, and other grievous sins could cut one off forever from the Church, but the Church consistently readmitted the repentant. Some early Christians delayed baptism until they were dying, as is said to have been the motive for which Constantine delayed receiving baptism.[41]
Baptism of the sick or dying used means other than even partial immersion and was still considered valid.[42]
What is now generally called the Nicene Creed, longer than the text adopted by the First Council of Nicaea of 325, and known also as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed because of its adoption in that form by the First Council of Constantinople in 381, was probably the baptismal creed then in use in Constantinople, the venue of the 381 Council.[43]
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Infant baptism became common, alongside the developing theology of original sin, displacing the earlier common practice of delaying baptism until the deathbed.[3] Against Pelagius, Augustine insisted that baptism was necessary for salvation even for virtuous people and for children.
The twelfth century saw the meaning of the word "sacrament" narrowed down and restricted to seven rites, among them that of baptism, while other symbolic rites came to be called "sacramentals".[44]
In the period between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries, affusion (pouring) became the usual manner of administering baptism in Western Europe, though immersion continued to be found in some places even as late as the sixteenth century.[45] Throughout the Middle Ages, there was therefore considerable variation in the kind of facility required for baptism, from the baptismal pool large enough to immerse several adults simultaneously of the 13th century Baptistery at Pisa,[46] to the half-metre deep basin in the 6th century baptistery of the old Cologne Cathedral.[47]
Both East and West considered washing with water and the Trinitarian baptismal formula necessary for administering the rite. Scholasticism referred to these two elements as the matter and the form of the sacrament, employing terms taken from the then prevailing Aristotelian philosophy.[48]
- Further information: Anabaptism
In the 16th century, various Reformers broke from the Roman Catholic Church and challenged numerous church doctrines and practices.
Martin Luther re-categorized all the sacraments other than baptism and the Eucharist as rites.[citation needed] Swiss Reformer Huldrych Zwingli differed with Luther here, denying sacramental status even of these. Zwingli identified baptism and the Lord's supper as sacraments, but in the sense of an initiatory ceremony or pledging.[49] His understanding of these sacraments as symbolic differentiated him from Luther. However, all those Reformers and the Protestant/reformed churches in their tradition continued the practice of infant baptism.
Anabaptists (a word that means "rebaptizers") rejected so thoroughly the tradition maintained by Lutherans as well as Catholics that they denied the validity of baptism outside their group. They "rebaptized" converts on the grounds that one cannot be baptized without wishing it, and an infant, who does not understand what happens in a baptism ceremony and who has no knowledge of the concepts of Christianity, is not really baptized. They saw as non-biblical the baptism of infants, who cannot confess their faith and who, not having yet committed any sins, are not in the same need of salvation. Anabaptists and other Baptist groups do not consider that they rebaptize those who have been baptized as infants, since, in their view, infant baptism is without effect. The Amish, Reformation churches (Churches of Christ/ Christian Church),Hutterites, Baptists, Mennonites and other groups descend from this tradition. Pentecostalist, charismatic and most non-denominational churches share this view.
Today, baptism is most readily identified with Christianity, where it symbolizes the cleansing (remission) of sins, and the union of the believer with Christ in His death, burial and resurrection so that he may be called "saved" or "born again". Most Christian groups use water to baptize and agree that it is important, yet may strongly disagree with other groups regarding aspects of the rite such as:
- manner or method of baptism
- recipients of baptism
- meaning and effects of baptism
A few Christian groups assert that water baptism has been supplanted by the promised "baptism of the Holy Spirit", and water baptism was unnecessarily carried over from the early Jewish Christian practice.[50]
Christian baptism is performed in the following forms:
Aspersion is the sprinkling of water on the head.
Affusion is the pouring of water over the head.
Immersion is a method of baptism employed at least from the second century, whereby part of the candidate's body was submerged in the baptismal water which was poured over the remainder. The term is occasionally loosely used to include submersion, from which it is strictly to be distinguished. The rite is still found in the Eastern Church.[51][52] In the Latin Church, immersion seems to have prevailed until the twelfth century.[53]
Submersion (also called "total immersion" or, loosely, "immersion") is the form of baptism in which the water completely covers the candidate's body. Though immersion is now also common, submersion is practiced in the Orthodox and several of the other Eastern Churches, as well as in the Ambrosian Rite. It is one of the methods provided in the Roman Catholic rite for the baptism of infants. On the basis of Romans 6:3-11 it has been generally supposed to have been the custom of the early Church, but this view has been challenged from evidence of primitive pictorial representations and measurements of surviving early baptismal fonts.[54]
Biblical passages such as Romans 6:2-13 and Colossians 2:12-13 are often interpreted to mean that baptism is by full immersion (submersion) in water in order to represent a death and burial (when the person being baptized is submerged under the water, as if buried), and a resurrection (when the person comes up out of the water, as if rising from the grave) - a "death" and a "burial" to an old way of life focused on sinning, and a "resurrection" to the start of a new life as a Christian focused on God.[55] John 3:3-5 is also sometimes taken as implying that baptism is by complete immersion in water to represent a birth to a new life as a Christian (when the person being baptized comes out of the water).[56]
Baptism by submersion is also practiced by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).
There are differences in views about the effect of baptism for a Christian. Some Christian groups assert baptism is a requirement for salvation and a sacrament, and speak of "baptismal regeneration". This view is shared by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions, and by Churches formed early during the Protestant Reformation such as Lutheran and Anglican. For example, Martin Luther said:
To put it most simply, the power, effect, benefit, fruit, and purpose of Baptism is to save. No one is baptized in order to become a prince, but as the words say, to "be saved". To be saved, we know, is nothing else than to be delivered from sin, death, and the devil and to enter into the kingdom of Christ and live with him forever.
– Luther's Large Catechism, 1529
Much later Restorationist Churches such as the Churches of Christ and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also espouse baptism as necessary for salvation.
For Roman Catholics, baptism by water is a sacrament of initiation into the life of children of God (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1212-13). It configures the person to Christ (CCC 1272), and obliges the Christian to share in the Church's apostolic and missionary activity (CCC 1270). The Catholic Tradition holds that there are three types of baptism by which one can be saved: sacramental baptism (with water), baptism of desire (explicit or implicit desire to be part of the Church founded by Jesus Christ), and baptism of blood (martyrdom) (see topic below).
By contrast, evangelical and fundamentalist Protestant groups recognize baptism as an act of obedience to and identity with Jesus as the Christ. They say that baptism has no sacramental (saving) power, and only testifies outwardly to the invisible and internal operation of God's power, which is completely separate from the rite itself.
The liturgy of baptism in the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican, and Methodist traditions makes clear reference to baptism as not only a symbolic burial and resurrection, but an actual supernatural transformation, one that draws parallels to the experience of Noah and the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea divided by Moses. Thus, baptism is literally and symbolically not only cleansing, but also dying and rising again with Christ. Catholics believe that baptism is necessary for the cleansing of the taint of original sin, and for that reason infant baptism is a common practice. The Eastern Churches (Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy) also baptize infants on the basis of texts, such as Matthew 19:14, which are interpreted as supporting full Church membership for children. In these traditions, baptism is immediately followed by Chrismation and Communion at the next Divine Liturgy, regardless of age. Orthodox likewise believe that baptism removes what they call the ancestral sin of Adam.[57] Anglicans believe that Baptism is also the entry into the Church and therefore allows them access to all rights and responsibilities as full members, including the privilege to receive Holy Communion. Most Anglicans agree that it also cleanses the taint of what in the West is called original sin, in the East ancestral sin.
Eastern Orthodox Christians usually insist on complete threefold immersion as both a symbol of death and rebirth into Christ, and as a washing away of sin. Latin Rite Catholics generally baptize by affusion (pouring); Eastern Catholics usually by submersion, or at least partial immersion. However, submersion is gaining in popularity within the Latin Catholic Church. In newer church sanctuaries, the baptismal font may be designed to expressly allow for baptism by immersion.[citation needed] Anglicans baptize by submersion, immersion, affusion or sprinkling.
According to a tradition, evidence of which can be traced back to at latest about the year 200,[58] sponsors or godparents are present at baptism and vow to uphold the Christian education and life of the baptized.
Baptists argue that the Greek word βαπτίζω originally meant "to immerse". They interpret some Biblical passages concerning baptism as requiring submersion of the body in water. They also state that only submersion reflects the symbolic significance of being "buried" and "raised" with Christ (see Romans 6:3-4). Baptist Churches baptize in the name of the Trinity—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
Some "full gospel" charismatic churches such as Oneness Pentecostals baptize only in the name of Jesus Christ, citing Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus as their authority (Acts 2:38). They also point to several historical sources that maintain that the early church always baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus until development of the Trinity Doctrine in the Second Century.[59]
{{}}=== Comparative summary === Comparative Summary of Baptisms of Denominations of Christian Influence.[60][61][62](This section does not give a complete listing of denominations, and therefore, it only mentions a fraction of the churches practicing "believer's baptism".)
| Denomination | Beliefs about Baptism | Type of Baptism | Baptize Infants? | Baptism Regenerates, Gives Spiritual Life | Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anglican Communion | "Baptism is not only a sign of profession, and mark of difference, whereby Christian men are discerned from others that be not christened, but it is also a sign of Regeneration or New-Birth..."[63] | By submersion, immersion, pouring, or sprinkling. | Yes. | No. | Trinity |
| Apostolic Brethren | Necessary for salvation because it conveys spiritual rebirth. | By submersion only. Also stress the necessity of a “second” Baptism of a special outpouring from the Holy Spirit.[64] | No. | Yes. | Jesus[65] |
| Baptists | A divine ordinance, a symbolic ritual, a mechanism for publicly declaring one's faith, and a sign of having already been saved, but not necessary for salvation. See Baptist - Believer's Baptism. | By submersion only. | No. | No. | Trinity |
| Christadelphians | Baptism is essential for the salvation of a believer.[66] It is only effective if somebody believes the true gospel message before they are baptized.[67] Baptism is an external symbol of an internal change in the believer: it represents a death to an old, sinful way of life, and the start of a new life as a Christian, summed up as the repentance of the believer[55] - it therefore leads to forgiveness from God, who forgives people who repent.[68] Although someone is only baptized once, a believer must live by the principles of their baptism (i.e. death to sin, and a new life following Jesus) throughout their life.[69] | By submersion only[70] | No[70] | Yes | Jesus |
| Disciples of Christ | Baptism is an outward and public sign of God's grace made manifest in the individual. In submersion, one symbolically experiences dying with Christ, and then rises with Him. | Usually by submersion | No | No | Trinity |
| Churches of Christ | Baptism is a must for salvation as commanded by Jesus, Mark 16:16; Matt. 28:19. One receives forgiveness of sin, the gift of the Holy Spirit, and addition to God's church. Acts 2:38-41. This is done after one has expressed faith in Jesus Christ as the Son of God and repented from sins. | Submersion only | No | Yes[71] | Trinity |
| The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints | An ordinance essential to enter the Celestial Kingdom of Heaven and preparatory for receiving the Gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands. | By submersion performed by a person holding proper priesthood authority. | No (at least 8 years old) | Yes | Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost (The LDS church doesn't believe in the Nicean trinity) |
| Eastern Orthodox Church / Oriental Orthodox Church / Eastern Catholic | The old man dies the "New Man" is born free from the stain of ancestral sin. A new name is given. All previous commitments and sins are null and void. | By 3-fold submersion or immersion (other forms only in emergency, must be corrected by priest if possible). | Yes. Chrismation (ie Confirmation) and Holy Communion follow immediately. | Yes | Trinity |
| Jehovah’s Witnesses | Baptism is necessary for salvation as part of the entire baptismal arrangement: as an expression of obedience to Jesus' command (Matthew 28:19-20), as a public symbol of the saving faith in the ransom sacrifice of Jesus Christ (Romans 10:10), and as an indication of repentance from dead works and the dedication of one's life to Jehovah. (1 Peter 2:21) However, baptism does not guarantee salvation. | By submersion only; typical candidates are baptized at district and circuit conventions. | No | Yes | Jesus |
| Denomination (Continued) | Beliefs about Baptism | Type of Baptism | Baptize Infants? | Baptism Regenerates, Gives Spiritual Life | Standard |
| Lutherans | Baptism is how God miraculously delivers a person from sin, death, and the devil; gives new life; and brings one into Christ’s kingdom forever (Titus 3:5). | By sprinkling, pouring, immersion or submersion. | Yes | Yes | Trinity |
| Methodists (Arminians, Wesleyans) | The Sacrament of initiation into Christ's holy church whereby one is incorporated into God's mighty acts of salvation and given new birth through water and the spirit. Baptism washes away sin and clothes one in the righteousness of Christ. | By sprinkling, pouring, immersion or submersion. | Yes | Yes | Trinity |
| Trinitarian Pentecostals and various “Holiness” groups, Christian Missionary Alliance, Assemblies of God | Water Baptism is an ordinance, a symbolic ritual used to witness to having accepted Christ as personal Savior. | By submersion. Also stress the necessity of a “second” Baptism of a special outpouring from the Holy Spirit. | No | Varies | Trinity |
| Oneness Pentecostals | Necessary for Salvation | By submersion only | No | Yes | Jesus name |
| Presbyterian and most Reformed churches | A sacrament, a symbolic ritual, and a seal of the adult believer’s present faith. It is an outward sign of an inward grace. | By sprinkling, pouring, immersion or submersion | Yes, to indicate membership in the New Covenant. | No | Trinity |
| Quakers (Religious Society of Friends) | Only an external symbol that is no longer to be practiced. | Do not believe in Baptism of water, but only in an inward, ongoing purification of the human spirit in a life of discipline led by the Holy Spirit. | — | — | — |
| Revivalism | A necessary step for salvation. | By submersion, with the expectation of receiving the Holy Spirit. | No | Yes | Trinity |
| Roman Catholic Church | "Necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament" (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1257) | Usually by pouring in the West, by submersion or immersion in the East; sprinkling admitted only if the water then flows on the head. | Yes | Yes | Trinity |
| Seventh-day Adventists | Not stated as the way to salvation, but a prerequisite for salvation since it symbolizes the acceptance of Jesus as Savior. A time for person to express personal faith in Christ. | By submersion only. | No | No | Trinity |
| United Church of Christ (Evangelical and Reformed Churches and the Congregational Christian Churches) | One of two sacraments. Baptism is an outward sign of God's inward grace. It is not necessary for membership in a local congregation. However, it is a common practice for both infants and adults. | By sprinkling, pouring, immersion or submersion. | Yes, to indicate membership in the New Covenant. | No | Trinity |
| Anabaptist | Baptism is considered by the majority of Anabaptist Churches (anabaptist means to baptize again) to be essential to Christian faith but not to salvation. It is considered a biblical ordinance along with communion, feet washing, the holy kiss, the christian woman's head covering, anointing with oil, and marriage. The Anabaptists also have stood historically against the practice of infant baptism. The Anabaptists stood firmly against infant baptism in a time when the Church and State were one and when people were made a citizen through baptism into the officially sanctioned Church (Reformed or Catholic). Belief and repentance are believed to precede and follow baptism. | By pouring, immersion or submersion. | No | No | Trinity |
The ecumenical paper Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, prepared by representatives across a spectrum of Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant traditions of Christianity, attempts to express a common understanding of baptism, as it is derived from the New Testament.
- "…according to Acts 2:38, baptisms follow from Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus and lead those baptized to the receiving of Christ's Spirit, the Holy Ghost, and life in the community: "They devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers" (2:42) as well as to the distribution of goods to those in need (2:45). Those who heard, who were baptized and entered the community's life, were already made witnesses of and partakers in the promises of God for the last days: the forgiveness of sins through baptism in the name of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Ghost on all flesh (Acts 2:38). Similarly, in what may well be a baptismal pattern, 1 Peter testifies that proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus Christ and teaching about new life (1:3-21) lead to purification and new birth (1:22-23). This, in turn, is followed by eating and drinking God's food (2:2-3), by participation in the life of the community — the royal priesthood, the new temple, the people of God (2:4-10) — and by further moral formation (2:11 ff.) At the beginning of 1 Peter the writer sets this baptism in the context of obedience to Christ and sanctification by the Spirit (1:2). So baptism into Christ is seen as baptism into the Spirit (cf. 1Corinthians 12:13). In the fourth gospel Jesus' discourse with Nicodemus indicates that birth by water and Spirit becomes the gracious means of entry into the place where God rules (John 3:5)."[72]
In Roman Catholic teaching, baptism plays an essential role in salvation.[73] This teaching dates back to the teachings and practices of first-century Christians, and the connection between salvation and baptism was not, on the whole, an item of major dispute until Martin Luther's teachings regarding grace. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament."[74] Accordingly, a person who knowingly, willfully and unrepentantly rejects baptism has no hope of salvation. This teaching is based on Jesus' words in the Gospel according to John: "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter into the Kingdom of God."[75]
Catholics are baptized in water, by submersion, immersion or infusion, in the name (singular) of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit[76] — not three gods, but one God subsisting in three Persons. While sharing in the one divine essence, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct, not simply three "masks" or manifestations of one Person. The faith of the Church and of the individual Christian is based on a relationship with these three Persons of the one God. Adults can also be baptized, if they aren't baptized already, through the Rite of Christian Initiation for Adults (RCIA).
It is claimed that Pope Stephen I, St. Ambrose, and Pope Nicholas I declared that baptisms in the name of "Jesus" only as well as in the name of "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" were valid. The correct interpretation of their words is disputed.[77] Current canonical law requires the Trinitarian formula and water for validity[73]
The Church recognizes two equivalents of baptism with water: "baptism of blood" and "baptism of desire". Baptism of blood is that undergone by unbaptized individuals who are martyred for the Faith, while baptism of desire generally applies to catechumens who die before they can be baptized. The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes these two forms:
The Church has always held the firm conviction that those who suffer death for the sake of the faith without having received Baptism are baptized by their death for and with Christ. This Baptism of blood, like the desire for Baptism, brings about the fruits of Baptism without being a sacrament. (1258)
For catechumens who die before their Baptism, their explicit desire to receive it, together with repentance for their sins, and charity, assures them the salvation that they were not able to receive through the sacrament. (1259)
Non-Christians who seek God with a sincere heart and, moved by grace, try to do God's will as they know it through the dictates of conscience can also be saved without water baptism; they are said to desire it implicitly. (cf. Catechism, 1260). As for unbaptized infants, the Church is unsure of their fate; "the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God" (Catechism, 1261).
Since Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran Churches teach that baptism is a sacrament having actual spiritual and salvific effects, certain criteria must be complied with for it to be valid (i.e., to actually have those effects.) Violation of some rules regarding baptism renders the baptism illicit (in violation of the Church's laws) but still valid. For example, if a priest introduces some variation in the authorized rite for the ceremony, the baptism may still be valid (provided certain key criteria are met).
One of the criteria for validity is that the correct form of words be used. Latin Rite Roman Catholics and Episcopalians/Anglicans use the form "I baptize you..."; Eastern Orthodox and some Eastern Catholic Churches use the form "This servant of Christ is baptized..." or "This person is baptized by my hands…". These Churches recognize each other's form of baptism as valid to varying degrees. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the use of the verb "baptize" is essential.[45]
It is also considered essential that the Trinitarian formula ("in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit") be used; thus they do not accept as valid baptisms of non-Trinitarian churches such as Oneness Pentecostals. There was an ancient controversy over baptism using the formula that Oneness Pentecostals use, with some ancient authorities holding it to be valid.
Another condition is that water be used. Some Christian groups historically have rejected the use of water for baptism, for example the Albigensians. These baptisms would not be valid, nor would a baptism in which some other liquid was used.
Another requirement is that the celebrant intends to perform baptism. This requirement entails merely the intention "to do what the Church does", not necessarily to have Christian faith, since it is not the person baptizing, but the Holy Spirit working through the sacrament, who produces the effects of the sacrament. Doubt about the faith of the baptizer is thus no ground for doubt about the validity of the baptism.
Some conditions expressly do not affect validity — for example, whether submersion, immersion, affusion or aspersion is used. However, if water is sprinkled, there is a danger that the water may not touch the skin of the unbaptized. If the water does not flow on the skin, there is no ablution and so no baptism.
If for a medical or other legitimate reason the water cannot be poured on the head, it may be poured over another principal part of the body, such as the chest. In such case validity is uncertain and the person will be considered to be conditionally baptized – until such time as they can be baptized in the traditional manner later.
In many communions it does not affect validity for a single submersion or pouring to be performed rather than a triple, but in Orthodoxy this is controversial.
According to the Catholic Church, baptism imparts an indelible "seal" upon the soul of the baptized. Thus, once baptized, an individual cannot be baptized again. This teaching was affirmed against the Donatists who practiced rebaptism. Baptism is said to operate ex opere operato and is valid even if administered in heresy or schism.[3] Like holy orders, it confers a "character" on the recipient, who can never be re-baptized.[3]
The Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, Presbyterian and Methodist Churches accept baptism performed by other denominations within this group as valid, subject to certain conditions. It is only possible to be baptized once, thus people with valid baptisms from other denominations may not be baptized again upon conversion or transfer. Such people are accepted upon making a profession of faith and, if they have not yet validly received the sacrament of confirmation, by being confirmed. In some cases it can be difficult to decide if the original baptism was in fact valid; if there is doubt, conditional baptism is administered, with a formula on the lines of "If you are not yet baptized, I baptize you…".
In the still recent past, it was common practice in the Roman Catholic Church to baptize conditionally almost every convert from Protestantism because of a perceived difficulty in judging about the validity in any concrete case. In the case of the major Protestant Churches, agreements involving assurances about the manner in which they administer baptism has ended this practice, which sometimes continues for other groups of Protestant tradition. The Catholic Church has always recognized the validity of both baptism and chrismation in the Churches of Eastern Christianity. On the other hand, it has explicitly denied the validity of baptism conferred in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[78]
Practice in the Eastern Orthodox Church for converts from other communions is not uniform, but even a convert received without administration of baptism is considered to have his previous baptism retroactively filled with grace by whatever form is used to accept him, such as by chrismation or confession. The exact procedure is dependent on local canons and is the subject of some controversy.
Oriental Orthodox Churches recognise the validity of baptisms performed within the Eastern Orthodox Communion. Some also recognise baptisms performed by Roman Catholic Churches. Any supposed baptism not performed using the Trinitarian formula is considered invalid.
In the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church and all Orthodox Churches, the baptism conferred by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is invalid.[79] An article published together with the official declaration to that effect gave reasons for that judgement, summed up in the following words: "The Baptism of the Catholic Church and that of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints differ essentially, both for what concerns faith in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in whose name Baptism is conferred, and for what concerns the relationship to Christ who instituted it."
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints stresses that baptism must be administered by one having proper authority; consequently, the Church does not recognize the baptism of any other church as valid. [80]
Also, the Jehovah's Witnesses also do not recognise any other babtism as valid, as they believe that they are the one true church of Christ also, and that the rest of "christendom" is false religion.
There is debate among Christian churches as to who can administer baptism. The examples given in the New Testament only show apostles and deacons administering baptism. Ancient Christian churches interpret this as indicating that baptism should be performed by the clergy except in extremis, i.e., when the one being baptized is in immediate danger of death. Then anyone may baptize, provided, in the view of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the person who does the baptizing is a member of that Church, or, in the view of the Roman Catholic Church, that the person, even if not baptized, intends to do what the Church does in administering the rite. Many Protestant churches see no specific prohibition in the biblical examples and permit any believer to baptize another.
In the Latin Rite Catholic Church the ordinary minister of baptism is a member of the clergy (bishop, priest or deacon),[81] but in normal circumstances only the Parish Priest of the person to be baptized, or someone authorized by the Parish Priest, may do so licitly[82] "If the ordinary minister is absent or impeded, a catechist or some other person deputed to this office by the local Ordinary, may lawfully confer baptism; indeed, in a case of necessity, any person who has the requisite intention may do so[83] By "a case of necessity" is meant imminent danger of death because of either illness or an external threat. "The requisite intention" is, at the minimum level, the intention "to do what the Church does" through the rite of baptism.
In the Eastern Catholic Churches, a deacon is not considered an ordinary minister. Administration of the sacrament is reserved, as in the Latin Rite, to the Parish Priest. But, "in case of necessity (in extremis), baptism can be administered by a deacon or, in his absence or if he is impeded, by another cleric, a member of an institute of consecrated life, or by any other Christian faithful; even by the mother or father, if another person is not available who knows how to baptize".[84]
The discipline of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East is similar to that of the Eastern Catholic Churches. They require the baptizer, even in cases of necessity, to be of their own faith, on the grounds that a person cannot convey what he himself does not possess, in this case membership in the Church.[85] The Latin Rite Catholic Church does not insist on this condition, considering that the effect of the sacrament, such as membership of the Church, is not produced by the person who baptizes, but by the Holy Spirit. For the Orthodox, while Baptism in extremis may be administered by a deacon or any lay-person, if the newly-baptized person survives, a priest must still perform the other prayers of the Rite of Baptism, and administer the Mystery of Chrismation.
The discipline of Anglicanism is similar to that of the Latin Rite Catholic Church. For Methodists and many other Protestant denominations, too, the ordinary minister of baptism is a duly ordained or appointed minister of religion.
Newer movements of Protestant Evangelical churches, particularly non-denominational, have begun to allow those persons most instrumental in one's faith to baptize.
In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, only a man who has been ordained to the Aaronic Priesthood holding the priesthood office of Priest or higher office in the Melchizedek Priesthood may administer baptism.
Anabaptists ("re-baptizers") and Baptists promote adult baptism, or "believer's baptism".
Early Anabaptists were labelled such because they re-baptized persons whom they felt had not been properly baptized (having received infant baptism, sprinkling, or baptism of any sort by another denomination). Some modern Baptists do not believe baptism by submersion is the only legitimate form of baptism, they simply perform baptism by submersion for members who wish to be baptized. It does not imply that any previous form of baptism by affusion or sprinkling is invalid. Baptism is an act identifying one as having accepted Jesus Christ as Savior. And "one enters by baptism into the membership of the church which performs it."[86]
Baptist theologians (such as John Gill) teach that baptism is only for those who can understand and profess their faith. This is called believer's baptism. Some, such as Gill, argue that the regulative principle of worship, which many paedobaptists also advocate and which states that elements of worship (including baptism) must be based on explicit commands of Scripture, is violated by infant baptism. Some would argue that according to this understanding, the rebaptisms that Baptists generally perform if a person was not regenerate when baptized also violate the Regulative Principle for Worship. Furthermore, because the New Covenant is described in Jeremiah 31:31-34<